A Narrative Review on the Influence of Electromagnetic Fields Below 100 kHz on the Endocrine System

PAPER manual Appl. Sci. 2026 Review Effect: mixed Evidence: Low

Read original paper → DOI: 10.3390/app16104910 Evidence Lab

Abstract

Background: Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMFs), generated mainly by power infrastructure and household devices, have raised scientific interest due to their potential impact on the endocrine system. Animal research consistently shows effects on melatonin secretion, stress hormone levels, thyroid activity, and reproductive function—largely mediated by oxidative stress and calcium ion imbalance. In contrast, human studies remain inconsistent, often hindered by methodological limitations and insufficient exposure characterization. Objective: This review synthesizes experimental and epidemiological studies examining low-frequency electromagnetic field exposure (≤100 kHz) and its influence on hormonal regulation. Methods: A bibliometric analysis highlights focused interest on specific endocrine targets, particularly the pineal gland. Importantly, many experimental studies use field strengths above those found near high-voltage power lines, limiting direct applicability. Conclusions: While a definitive causal link has not been established, the widespread exposure to low-frequency electromagnetic fields justifies precautionary considerations. Several important research gaps remain, many of which are identified in this review. The topic of low-frequency electromagnetic field effects on the endocrine system requires more rigorous, long-term human studies with accurate exposure assessment.

AI evidence extraction

At a glance

Study type

Review

Effect direction

mixed

Population

Experimental animals and humans in epidemiological studies

Sample size

—

Exposure

ELF power infrastructure and household devices · 0.1 MHz

Evidence strength

Low

Confidence: 86% · Peer-reviewed: yes

Main findings

This narrative review reports that animal studies consistently show effects of ELF-EMF exposure on several endocrine endpoints, while human studies remain inconsistent and limited by methodological issues and insufficient exposure characterization. The review concludes that no definitive causal link has been established and calls for more rigorous long-term human studies with accurate exposure assessment.

Outcomes measured

melatonin secretion
stress hormone levels
thyroid activity
reproductive function
hormonal regulation
endocrine system effects

Limitations

Human studies are inconsistent
Methodological limitations in the reviewed human literature
Insufficient exposure characterization
Many experimental studies use field strengths above those found near high-voltage power lines, limiting direct applicability

View raw extracted JSON

{
    "study_type": "review",
    "exposure": {
        "band": "ELF",
        "source": "power infrastructure and household devices",
        "frequency_mhz": 0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625,
        "sar_wkg": null,
        "duration": null
    },
    "population": "Experimental animals and humans in epidemiological studies",
    "sample_size": null,
    "outcomes": [
        "melatonin secretion",
        "stress hormone levels",
        "thyroid activity",
        "reproductive function",
        "hormonal regulation",
        "endocrine system effects"
    ],
    "main_findings": "This narrative review reports that animal studies consistently show effects of ELF-EMF exposure on several endocrine endpoints, while human studies remain inconsistent and limited by methodological issues and insufficient exposure characterization. The review concludes that no definitive causal link has been established and calls for more rigorous long-term human studies with accurate exposure assessment.",
    "effect_direction": "mixed",
    "limitations": [
        "Human studies are inconsistent",
        "Methodological limitations in the reviewed human literature",
        "Insufficient exposure characterization",
        "Many experimental studies use field strengths above those found near high-voltage power lines, limiting direct applicability"
    ],
    "evidence_strength": "low",
    "confidence": 0.85999999999999998667732370449812151491641998291015625,
    "peer_reviewed_likely": "yes",
    "keywords": [
        "ELF-EMF",
        "low-frequency electromagnetic fields",
        "below 100 kHz",
        "endocrine system",
        "melatonin",
        "pineal gland",
        "stress hormones",
        "thyroid activity",
        "reproductive function",
        "oxidative stress",
        "calcium ion imbalance"
    ],
    "suggested_hubs": []
}

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AI-extracted fields are generated from the abstract/metadata and may be incomplete or incorrect. This content is for informational purposes only and is not medical advice.

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